Islam and Local Tradition: A Comparative Perspective of Java and Sulawesi
Abstract
This article examines the dynamic relationship between Islam and local tradition in Indonesia with special reference to Java and Sulawesi. Based on historical and anthropological sources, the article seeks to understand variety of interpretation and application of Islam among local Muslims within their particular context. With this aim, the article tries to examines the intricate process of religious change as world religion interacts with local forces. The article argues that since the “localization” of Islam was continuing nature in the expansion of Islam beyond the Arab homeland, the same development in Southeast Asia can be expected. By focusing on the frameworks of ‘practical Islam’ rather than ‘normative Islam’ and both accommodation and conflict between shari’ah and adat as a whole system, rather than as separate entities, the article found a common feature of Islam as it is interpreted and applied by local Muslims in Java and Sulawesi. In this two region, Islam became the dominant force but did not completely obliterate the indigenous beliefs and practices. Despite this common feature, Javanese people have been more diverse than Sulawesi people in terms of religious spectrum particularly due to the fact that animism, Hindu-Buddhism, and Islam have been incorporated into Javanese cultural system.
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Endnotes
See Samuel Huntington, “The Clash of Civilizations?”, Foreign Affairs, vol. 72, no.3, November 1993, pp.22-49.
‘Localization’ signifies a process of selective appropriation and localization of materials to make local sense of therefore familiar and valuable what was originally ‘foreign’. It should not be supposed, however, that local cultural systems remain unchanged when they had localized foreign materials. In Indonesia, Islam is one of the foreign cultures. See O.W. Wolters, “Towards Defining Southeast Asian History”, in O.W. Wolters, History, Culture, and Region in Southeast Asian Perspectives (Ithaca & Singapore: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications & The Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1999), h.55-7; O.W.Wolters, “Southeast Asia as A Southeast Asian Field of Study”, Indonesia, 58, October 1994, pp.1-18.
The term shari’ah is only mentioned once in the Koran, which, according to Yusuf Ali, means laws or rules of practical conduct. Every prophet was revealed their own version of law. There is some debate over whether Islamic law as shari’ah is similar to that as fiqh (jurisprudence). Abdullah Yusuf Ali, The Meaning of Holy Qur’an (Maryland: Amana Publications, 1989), p.263; Wael B. Hallaq, A History of Islamic Legal Theories: An Introduction to Sunni Usul Al-Fiqh (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp.232-3.
Custom is the real historical continuity, while tradition is related to the past. For Benhard Dahm, tradition is “an adherence to values that have been influential in shaping cultural traditions of a given people. Giving them a sense of identity which they try to defend if it is challenged.” See Benhard Dahm, “The Role of Tradition in Historical Developments in Southeast Asia”, Archipel, II, 57 (Paris: Association Archipel, 1999), p.17.
See Khalil ‘Abd al-Karim, Al-Judhur al-Tarikhiyya lil-Shari’a al-Islamiyya (Cairo: Sina lil-Nashr, 1990), pp 15-9,85-9;Wael B.Hallaq, A History of Islamic Legal Theories: An Introduction to Sunni Usul Al-Fiqh (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 12.
See E.R. Leach, “Introduction”, in E.R. Leach (ed.), Dialectic in Practical Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), pp. 1-2; Roy F.Ellen, “Social Theory, Ethnography, and the Understanding of Practical Islam in South-East Asia”, in M.B.Hooker (ed.), Islam in Southeast Asia (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1983), p. 64-9.
Although Donald K. Emmerson realized that “Islam is the hardest for Western scholars to empathize and get inside of”, he or any non-Muslims, I would argue, can actually study Muslim beliefs and practices in an objective, scientific manner. Donald K. Emmerson, “Issues in Southeast Asian History: Room for Interpretation- A Review Article”, Journal of Asian Studies, vol. XL, No.1, November 1980, p. 59.
See Robert W. Hefner, “Islam in an Era of Nation-states: Politics and Religious Renewal in Muslim Southeast Asia”, in Robert W. Hefner & Patricia Horvatic (eds.), Islam in an Era of Nation-states: Politics and Religious Renewal in Muslim Southeast Asia (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997) pp.3-31.
Quoted in Fernand Braudel, “Changing Vocabulary”, A History of Civilizations (New York: Penguin Books, 1995), p.3.
J.C. van Leur, Indonesian Trade and Society: Essays in Asian Social and Economic History (The Hague: Van Hoeve, 1955), p.169.
William R. Roff (ed.), Islam and the Political Economy of Meaning (London: Croom Helm, 1987), pp.1-2; William R. Roff, “Afterword: The Comparative Study of Muslim Societies”, in Leif Manger (ed.), Muslim Diversity: Local Islam in Global Context (Richmond: Curzon Press, 1999), pp.246-7.
See Leif Manger, “Muslim Diversity: Local Islam in Global Context”, ibid. pp.1-3.
See William R. Roff, “Islam Obscured? Some Reflections on Studies of Islam and Society in Southeast Asia”, L’Islam en Indonesie, I, Archipel, 29 (Paris: Association Archipel, 1985), p.8.
Clifford Geertz, The Religion of Java (Illinois: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1960), pp.4-7.
Gellner observed that Hinduism is a folk religion, whereas Islam can manifest itself in a folk or a great tradition. “Islamic great tradition is modernisable, and the operation can be presented, not as an innovation or concession to outsiders, but rather as the continuation and completion of an old dialogue within Islam between …Holy Law and mere human custom….” Ernest Gellner, Muslim Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp.4-5.
Roy F.Ellen, “Social Theory, Ethnography, and the Understanding of Practical Islam in South-East Asia”, in M.B.Hooker (ed.), Islam in Southeast Asia (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1983), p.64-9.
Max Weber, Economy and Society: an Outline of Interpretative Sociology, vol.2, edited by G.Roth and C.Wittich (New York: Bedminster Press, 1968), p.821. There are however some cases where the application of shari’ah is hardly flexible when an issue is regarded by Muslims as being related to the fundamental belief (Arabic: aqidah), not merely to social relationship (mu’amalat). See for example Muhamad Ali, “Fatwas on Inter-faith Marriage in Indonesia”, Studia Islamika: Indonesian Journal for Islamic Studies, vol.9, no.3, 2002, pp.3-31.
Taufik Abdullah, “Adat dan Islam: Suatu Tinjauan tentang Konflik di Minangkabau”, in Taufik Abdullah (ed.), Sejarah dan Masyarakat: Lintasan Historis Islam di Indonesia (Jakarta: Pustaka Firdaus, 1987), pp. 104-27.
ibid, p.127.
David J. Banks, “Islam and Inheritance in Malaya: Culture Conflict or Islamic Revolution?”, American Ethnologist, III, p.586 as quoted in William R. Roff, “Islam Obscured?”, op.cit. p.12; Daniel S. Lev, Islamic Courts in Indonesia: A Study in the Political Bases of Legal Institutions (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), pp.4-5.
Clifford Geertz,”Religion As A Cultural System”, in Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, Inc.,Publishers, 1973), pp. 87-125; Bassam Tibi, trans. Clare Krojzl, Islam and the Cultural Accommodation of Social Change (Boulder, San Francisco & Oxford: Westview Press, 1990), pp.1-5.
A.H. Johns, ”From Coastal Settlement to Islamic School and City: Islamization in Sumatera, the Malay Peninsula, and Java”, Hamdard Islamicus, IV, 4, Karachi, 1981, p.5
Merle C. Ricklefs, “Six Centuries of Islamization in Java”, in Nehemia Levtzion (ed.),Conversion to Islam (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, Inc., 1979), p.109.
R.A. Kern, “The Propagation of Islam in the Indonesian-Malay Archipelago” in Alijah Gordon (ed.), The Propagation of Islam in the Indonesian-Malay Archipelago (Kuala Lumpur: Malaysian Sociological Research Institute, 2001), pp.50-4.
Roff, “Islam Obscured?” op.cit., pp.21-2.
ibid., p.27.
Koentjaranigrat, Kebudayaan Jawa (Jakarta: PN Balai Pustaka, 1984), pp. 310-18.
Revivalism brings out the idea of returning to the golden past and a desire to revive what is antiquated. Chandra Muzaffar, “Islamic Resurgence: A Global View”, in Taufik Abdullah & Sharon Siddique (eds), Islam and Society in Southeast Asia (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1986), p. 6.
Ricklefs, “Six Centuries”, op.cit. pp.112-7.
The Nahdlatul Ulama was established in 1926 by Hashim Ash’ari, originally as a reaction to the Muhammadiyyah’s modernism, although it experienced a dynamic change.
Ricklefs, “Six Centuries”, op.cit., p.120.
The Muhammadiyyah was found in 1912 in Yogyakarta by KH Ahmad Dahlan, inspired by Muhammad Abduh’s reformism. Muhammadiyyah and Nahdlatul Ulama are the two largest religious organizations in Java and in Indonesia in general. Regarding a comparative study of Islamization see Nehemia Levtzion, “Toward a Comparative Study of Islamization”, in Nehemia Levtzion (ed.),Conversion to Islam (New York: Holmes & Meier Publishers, Inc., 1979), p.21.
ibid., pp.126-7.
See Widji Saksono, Mengislamkan Tanah Jawa: Telaah Atas Metode Dakwah Walisongo (Bandung: Penerbit Mizan, 1995), pp. 230-3;
See Ismawati, “Budaya dan Kepercayaan Jawa pra-Islam”, in H.M. Darori Amin (ed.), Islam dan Kebudayaan Jawa (Yogyakarta: Gama Media, 2000), p.13.
M.Darori Amin, “Sinkretisme dalam Masyarakat Jawa”, ibid., p.85.
Clifford Geertz, The Religion of Java (Illinois: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1960), pp.1-7.
Andrew Beatty, Varieties of Javanese Religion: An Anthropological Account (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p.115, 156.
Clifford Geertz, The Religion of Java, op.cit., p.11.
Robert W. Hefner, Hindu Javanese: Tengger Tradition and Islam (Princeton & New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1985), p.105
Mark R.Woodward, Islam in Java: Normative Piety and Mysticism in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1989), p.52.
See for example, Robert W. Hefner, “Islamization and Democratization in Indonesia” in Robert W. Hefner & Patricia Horvatic (eds.), Islam in an Era of Nation-states: Politics and Religious Renewal in Muslim Southeast Asia (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997), pp.75-127; Dale f.Eickelman & Jon W.Anderson (eds), New Media in the Muslim World: The Emerging Public Sphere (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1999);Johan Meuleman (ed.), Islam in the Era of Globalization: Muslim Attitudes towards Modernity and Identity (London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2002),
Eldar Braten, “To Color, Not Oppose: Spreading Islam in Rural Java”, in Leif Manger (ed.), Muslim Diversity, op.cit. pp.150-71.
M. Bambang Pranowo, “Partai Politik dan Islamisasi di Pedesaan Jawa”, in Saiful Muzani,Pembangunan dan Kebangkitan Islam di Asia Tenggara (Jakarta: LP3ES, 1993), pp.178-95.
Clifford Geertz, Islam Observed: Religious Developments in Morocco and Indonesia (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1968), p.14-5.
Muslim Abdurrahman, “Beri-Islam secara Kultural”, Republika, 27th June 2003
Mark R. Woodward, Islam in Java: Normative Piety and Mysticism in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1989), p.242.
Waldemar Stohr & Piet Zoetmulder, Les Religions d’Indonesia (Paris: Payot, 1968), pp.116-7.
Tim Penulis, Sejarah Kebudayaan Sulawesi, (Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1995), pp. 30-5.
Muslim Abdurrahman, “Ber-Islam Secara Kultural”, Republika, 27th June 2003
Christian Pelras, “Religion, Tradition, and the Dynamics of Islamization of South Sulawesi”, Archipel, 29 (Paris: Association Archipel, 1985), p.108.
Kathryn Robinson, “Traditions of House-Building in South Sulawesi”, in Kathryn Robinson & Mukhlis Paeni, Living Through Histories: Culture, History, and Social Life in South Sulawesi (Canberra: The Australian National University and the National Archives of Indonesia, 1998), p.180.
Manyambeang, “Lontaraq Riwayagna Tuanta Salamaka”, 187, in William Cummings, Making Blood White: Historical Transformations in Early Modern Makassar (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002), p.54.
Abu Hamid, “Sistem Nilai Islam dalam Budaya Bugis-Makassar”, in Aswab Mahasin et all (eds), Ruh Islam dalam Budaya Bangsa: Aneka Budaya Nusantara (Jakarta: Yayasan Festival Istiqlal, 1996), pp.171-2.
R.A. Kern, “The Propagation of Islam in the Indonesian-Malay Archipelago” in Alijah Gordon (ed.), The Propagation of Islam, op.cit., pp.72-80; Henri Chamber-Loir, “Dato ri Bandang. Legendes de l’Islamisation de la region de Célèbes-Sud”, Archipel 29 (Paris: Association Archipel, 1985), p.155.
Chamber-Loir writes, “L’acceptation de la novella religion toutefois créa en meme temps un lien nouveau d’egalité entre le vainqueur et le vaincu.” Pelras also writes, “Ce n’est sans doute pas un hazard si c’est a cette époque que ses habitants choisissent d’adherer a une religion mondiale : christianisme d’abord, puis faute d’un appui reel des Portugais, Islam qui deviandra rapidement l’un des elements essentiels de leur culture.” Leonard Y. Andaya, The Kingdom of Johor 1641-1728: Economic and Political Developments (Kuala Lumpur, Oxford University Press, 1975) in Christian Pelras, “Religion, Tradition, and the Dynamics of Islamization in South Sulawesi”, Archipel 29 (Paris: Association Archipel, 1985), p. 125; Chamber-Loir, “Datu ri Bandang”, op.cit., p.139; Leonard Y.Andaya, The Heritage of Arung Palaka (La Haye: VKI, 1981), p.35
ibid., p. 117, 120.
A.Qadir Gassing, “Tuangta Salamaka Syekh Yusuf Tajul Khalwati”, in Andi Rasdiyanah Amir (ed.), Bugis-Makassar dalam Peta Islamisasi Indonesia (Ujung Pandang: IAIN Alauddin, 1982), pp.39-48. Concerning the doctrinal debate between Al-Raniri and Hamzah al-Fansuri See Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas, Raniri and The Wujudiyyah of 17th Century Aceh (Singapore: Malaysia Printers Ltd., 1966), especially pp. 18-56
Christian Perlas, op.cit, p. 112; On Islam in Bima, see Michael Hitchcock, Islam and Identity in Eastern Indonesia (Hull: University of Hull Press,1988)
Henry Chamber-Loir, “Dato ri Bandang”, op.cit., pp. 143-50.
ibid., p.156, p.161
Waldemar Stohr & Piet Zoetmulder, Les Religions d’Indonesia, op.cit., p.317.
Philip D. Curtin, Cross-cultural Trade in World History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), p. 162.
Ibrahim Polontalo, Muhammadiyyah di Sulawesi Utara 1928-1990 (Gorontalo: Karya Dunia Fikir, 1995), pp.3-4.
See Yayasan 23 January 1942 & IKIP Negeri Manado Cabang Gorontalo, Perjuangan Rakyat Di Daerah Gorontalo (Gorontalo: PT Gobel Dharma Nusantara, 1982), pp. 34-7.
R.A. Kern, “The Propagation of Islam in the Indonesian-Malay Archipelago” in Alijah Gordon (ed.), The Propagation of Islam, op.cit., pp. 80-1.
Martin Rossler, “Islamization and the Reshaping of Identities in Rural South Sulawesi” in Robert W.Hefner and Patricia Horvatich (eds), Islam in an Era of Nation-States: Politics and Religious Renewal in Muslim Southeast Asia (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997), p. 277, 284.
ibid., pp. 276-7.
ibid., p.282.
D.Eickelman, “The Study of Islam in Local Contexts”, Contributions to Asian Studies 17, 1982, pp.1-16
T.H. Erickson, “The Cultural Contexts of Ethnic Differences”, Man, 26 : 1 (1991) p.127 in Michael Hitchcock, Islam and Identity in Eastern Indonesia (Hull: The University of Hull Press, 1996) pp.10-1.
See Bernhard Dahm, “The Role of Tradition in Historical Development”, Archipel, II, 57 (Paris: Association Archipel, 1999),p.20.